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Endnotes
1 Often theorists chose to use the term antisocial behavior rather than criminality due to crime being a legal concept, which may change depending on the environment or historical period (Fishbein, 2001).
2 In the nineteenth century, several psychiatrists and physicians in Europe and in the United States began to independently describe a similar condition. Each one labeled the condition differently, naming it madness without delirium, moral derangement, moral insanity, or psychopathy (Hervé, 2007; Glicksohn, 2002; Rafter, 2004). These terms were used to depict a personality disorder or clinically observed syndrome describing emotionally disturbed but intellectually intact persons who engaged in antisocial or violent behaviors. An American psychologist, Partridge, was the first to narrowly define and describe psychopathy as a particular personality disorder rather than a typology of disorders with diverse subtypes (Hervé, 2007). Due to the former confusion surrounding the term psychopath, Partridge replaced the older term with a new term, sociopath, to be identified with his more specific concept (Hervé, 2007). The contemporary concept of psychopathy can be attributed to Hervey Cleckly (1976), a psychiatrist who treated criminal offenders (Hervé, 2007). Today, Robert Hare is leader of the study of psychopathy and he refined Cleckly’s list of traits and definitions and created a measure of psychopathy, the Psychopathy Checklist (PCL) (Hare, 1996). Unlike other instruments used to measure personality, the PCL cannot be self-administered but must be administered by a trained interviewer who asks a series of questions to determine whether a person exhibits the traits of psychopathy.
3 Moffitt (1993) asserts that there are two types of offenders: (1) a larger group of adolescence-limited offenders, with delinquent or antisocial behavior that begins and ends during adolescence and (2) a smaller group of offenders, with antisocial behavior that begins in childhood and continues into adulthood, labeled life-course-persistent offenders.
4 A reluctance to imply that victims may affect their own risk for victimization could obstruct research into understanding such a condition, yet, as Boney-McCoy and Finkelhor (1995) stated, “If research reveals that certain personal characteristics put children at increased risk for victimization, it would be irresponsible for researchers to demur from discussing these findings in the name of not ‘blaming the victim’” (p. 1416).
Table 1. Personality Models and Dimensions
Model Definitions
|
Five-Factor Model
|
|
|
Neuroticism
|
Emotional stability and adjustment versus instability and maladjustment
|
|
Extraversion
|
Sociability and agency
|
|
Openness to Experience
|
Interest and willingness to try or consider new activities, ideas, beliefs; intellectual curiosity
|
|
Agreeableness
|
Interpersonal strategies: Agreeableness versus Antagonism
|
|
Conscientiousness
|
Ability to control impulses, carry out plans and tasks, organizational
skills, follow one’s internal moral code
|
|
Eysenck
|
|
|
Psychoticism
|
Egocentricity, interpersonal coldness and disconnectedness, lack of empathy, and impulsiveness
|
|
Extraversion
|
Sociability and agency
|
|
Neuroticism
|
Emotional stability and adjustment versus instability and maladjustment
|
|
Tellegen
|
|
|
Positive Emotionality
|
Sociability, tendency to experience positive emotions, assertiveness,
achievement orientation
|
|
Negative Emotionality
|
Tendency to experience negative emotions; one’s ability to
handle stress
|
|
Constraint
|
Ability to control impulses, avoid potentially dangerous situations, and endorse traditional values and standards
|
|
Cloninger
|
|
|
Novelty Seeking
|
Tendency toward intense exhilaration or excitement in response to novel stimuli
|
|
Harm Avoidance
|
Tendency to respond intensely to aversive stimuli
|
|
Reward Dependence
|
Tendency to respond intensely to signals of reward
|
|
Persistence
|
Perseverance despite frustration and fatigue
|
|
Self-directedness
|
Self-determination and willpower
|
|
Cooperativeness
|
Tendency to be agreeable versus antagonistic and hostile
|
|
Self-transcendence
|
Involvement with spirituality
|
Source: Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. (2001). Structural models of personality and their relation to antisocial behavior: A meta-analytic review. Criminology, 39, p. 769
Table 2: Psychopathy Verses Antisocial Personality Disorder
Hare Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL-R)
Emotional/Interpersonal Traits
Glibness/superficial charm
Grandiose sense of self-worth
Need for stimulation/prone to boredom
Conning/manipulation
Lack of remorse of guilt
Shallow affect
Callous/lack of empathy
Lack of realistic, long-term goals
Failure to accept responsibility for own actions
Pathological lying
Social deviance
Many short-term marital relationships
Juvenile delinquency
Criminal versatility
Promiscuous sexual relations
Poor behavioral controls
Parasitic lifestyle
Early behavior problems
Impulsivity
Irresponsibility
Revocation of conditional release
Note: Items scored on a scale of 0-2 by a trained interviewer
(0 = not applicable, 1 = uncertain, 2 = definitely present)
DSM-IV Diagnostic Criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder
A. There is a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since age 15 years, as indicated by three (or more) of the following:
- Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest
- Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure
- Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead
- Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults
- Reckless disregard for safety of self or others
- Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations
- Lack of remorse as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another
B. The individual is at least age 18 years.
C. There is evidence of conduct disorder with onset before age 15 years.
Sources: Robert D. Hare (1993). Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of Psychopaths Among Us. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.).
